Into to future autobiography Essays - Frankie Laine Discography

Choice 3 As I stay here on this fine early morning in my armchair, wearing just a shower robe with a warm cup of tea close by. My legs are checked and I am looking off into the sweet blue early morning sky. I consider my past, I think back. I am 75 years of age presently, dark in the face, dim in the facial hair, and dim in the eyes. I currently stroll with a stick, and some state I am becoming more vulnerable however my brain has never been more grounded. I think about when my hair was full and sparkled brilliant earthy colored in the daylight I despite everything had a seething fire in my eyes, I laugh at myself as a kid. I was so na?ve. As a kid one day I would feel like I had the bull by the horns and the following I felt like life had bitten me up and spat me pull out. In any case I never surrendered, there have been times that I have considered it however I never did. I comprehended what I asked for from my life and I would have successfully do it. What I needed, to a few, may of appear ed to be straightforward however to me it was an overwhelming assignment that nobody could prevent me from accomplishing. I needed to be an educator. I needed to educate English. Be that as it may, past having the title of an ?educator? I needed more than anything to impact and flash the creative mind of youthful personalities. I needed to show my understudies the intensity of writing. Since the intensity of Literature is more prominent than that of whatever else in our reality. Writing enables you and me to be anything we desire to be in that exact second. One understudy could be a defenseless sentimental sparing the young lady he had always wanted and taking her inhale as he protects her from a malicious ruler, while the child close to him could be a courageous worrier engaging a flank of adversaries from on his dark steed, with only a blade and the respect of his nation to guard. What's more, I needed to encourage the world this regardless of whether it was by each single student in turn. I had a hypothesis that it just takes one extraordinary psyche to change the world. Also, perhaps that incredible brain was not me, however perhaps I could be the one to start that extraordinary psyche or thought. What's more, I am pleased to stay here old, dim, and worn realizing that I did all that I could. I gave it my everything. What's more, I am very certain that I carried out my responsibility and finished my errand. I currently am a resigned English teacher, very unique in relation to that na?ve kid with a full head of delightful earthy colored hair. I have a family now, a delightful spouse, and 2 dazzling little girls. One wedded and has given me 2 of the most valuable grandbabies a man could request with another in transit. The other wedded and followed in the means of her daddy, rousing youngsters. In my auto history My Life as a Thinker and Teacher you will see my change from a little youngster with only a plan to a significant master of Literary investigations showing understudies and framing a delightful family en route.

Analyzing the key elements of the nature-nurture controversy Essay

Examining the key components of the nature-sustain debate - Essay Example These components include different measurements including physical situations, for example, pre-birth nourishment, social conditions, for example, the media among others. The nature versus support banter is a contention worried about the inborn characteristics of an individual versus the individual encounters used to decide or make contrasts in people, in their conduct and physical attributes. Mentally, nativism has the suggestion that a few aptitudes or capacities are generally hard wired in a person’s mind at the hour of birth. Then again, Empiricism or behaviorism suggests that hypothetical information that state completely that an individual’s information can just come through tangible experience. In such manner, certain logical scientists have shown that kids become the result of the situations that they live in, or they procure information to do the things they do by sustaining. Others contend that, individuals act in specific routes through inherited and this est ablish to nature. Most scholars are likewise in an understanding that, nature and support are both interlaced, and they have an impact in most human angles, for example, feeling, discernment among others. The inquiries behind the human improvement just as the components that impact it have taken focal significance in brain science since the time the start of the order. The contention that human advancement includes these two variables has been contended for quite a while by the two scholars and analysts. Progressive thoughts that came in the nineteenth century and their changes, for example, industrialization, Darwinism, and the annulment of subjugation made an impelling to the clashing understandings that existed about the world and human life. In fixing the impacts of condition and qualities to individual, conduct geneticists for the most part play out the twin and selection contemplates. Such investigations target decaying the difference that exists in a populace into ecological and hereditary parts. By the utilization of the examination of the relationship in an extraordinary measurement like the insight test (IQ) scores in indistinguishable twins and the intimate twins, it feasible for scientists to hypothetically work out the similar impacts of both nature and support on this specific measurement. Sandra Scarr, for instance, announced a relationship for the IQ test scores for indistinguishable twins of 0.86 and for the friendly twins of 0.55 she demonstrated that, indistinguishable twins had scores that are near each other when contrasted with those of the brotherly twins. This means that innate. Opposite, where the IQ scores are 100 percent decided hereditarily, the indistinguishable twins’ connection would be 1.00 as indicated by this model, heredity appears to have a critical job. This doesn't imply that it is surely the determinants in IQ tests. Specialists likewise screen concordance rates, notwithstanding the heritability gauges. Concordance rates are the ones at which the improvement of a trademark happens in the two twins (Novel guide, 2011). In this examination, the need or accessibility of a particular state of mind is typically considered being a phenomenal model. Under circumstances that the two twins indicated some clinical sorrow in all matches that were inspected in the examination, this would give a concordance pace of 100 percent in such a case. Opposite, if, in each pair, there was one person who had the clinical discourage

51 Things I Want to Say to 2022s

51 Things I Want to Say to 2022s Dear Members of the Class of 2022, Its been an absolute pleasure to interact with you over the past six months, starting with all your wonderful questions and comments at the Early Action webcast. Ive enjoyed getting to know you online and in person, and I have loved your memes and inside jokes. Now that Im leaving the Institute, I feel confident that its in good hands with yall. Before I met you, one chilly autumn night at around 4am, I sat down to finally write down all the thoughts and pieces of advice Ive accumulated over my time here. I was somewhat inspired by Ben Jones legendary 50 Things post (which you should totally read!), but also by the Class of 2021s struggles to adjust to the Institute. This post, of course, wont make things easy for you, but I hope that some of these thoughts can help, even a little bit. As you submit your first MIT forms and choices, I wish you the best of luck. Please reach out if you have any questions. Also, Id love to hear your thoughts on any of the points below, even if they come when you are all crusty, jaded seniors like me. Stay in touch, friends. Talk to upperclassmen. They are your foremost resource on “how to MIT.” Actually get to know usâ€"first impressions aren’t always right, especially in nerd school. Everyone here has something to offer and something to learnâ€"it’s how every class year gets built by Admissions. In my freshman year 8.01 Physics I, my two groupmates would compete over the marker during group problem-solving time. They would compete over who has already done more of the problems. At first, I’d stand behind them and learn little. But as the semester went on, I realized that I could do algebra better than they did! So I became the person they’d call on midway to simplify their expressions, and I learned physics, as well as an important lesson. Remember to acknowledge both your knowledge and ignorance. My theory is that, at MIT, especially in the first year, people feel like either “a shit” or “the shit.” But the first year at MIT is a great equalizer. If you fall under either of the categories, brace yourself for lift-off or landing. Get to know your professors and UROP mentors. The best way to treat the Impostor Syndrome for me was to sit in on my UROP offices meetings. I listened with awe at the mentors around me discussing all the things that went into opening a new school. And I realized how little every single student around me knows compared to experts with years of experience. It was inspiring and freeing. Your Pass/No Record freshman fall grades are not predictors of future performance. Your first exam grades are not predictors of your  performance in the class. Whether you get 91% or 20% on your first exam (and I’ve gotten both), things may still change dramatically during the course of the semester. Don’t panic, don’t procrastinateâ€"I believe in you. The cut-off for an A might be 90%, or 70%, or lower, or higher, depending on the class. Don’t panic when you first see your grade. And rewire your brain to not think  a low number means failure. It gets better after the GIRs. For many, if not most, the General Institute Requirements are the hardest classes at MIT. It gets better when you start taking classes in your major that you enjoy (if it doesn’t get better, switch majors). Try a class in your area of interest before declaring a major. Once you declare a major at the end of freshman year, continue to take classes outside of your department. MIT has grading options such as Sophomore Exploratory or Junior/Senior P/D/F designed just for that. Use MIT support services such as S^3 or MIT Mental Health. You matter. You are not taking up too much of their time. Your problem is not less valid than someone else’s. And, lastly, you’ve paid for them, so make the most of your tuition. Besides, when else can you get completely free support and counseling? Make as many friends as possible during Residence Exploration and Freshman Orientation. Thats when people are most receptive to meeting each other. Disclaimer: I didn’t do that, and though I wish I’d branched out more before the start of classes, I have made the most wonderful friends at the Institute. Figure out how you study best: with or without people, music, or regular breaks, the night or the week before, with the help of practice problems or class notes, in the morning, evening, or night, outside or inside your room, on- or off-campus, etc. Do that, and don’t feel like there is a right choice. For example, practice exams just don’t do it for me, but reading through class notes the night before a morning exam does. Despite what my 9.01 Intro to Neuroscience professor claims is right for the brain. Also, know when to stop studying. At some point, it’s just more efficient to sleep. Sleep, not nap. Your body will get used to napping every day, and that’s a nuisance. Get off campus as much as possible. You’re living in one of the most fascinating areas in the United States. And you can get student discounts to performances, movies, museums, etc. Follow the November Rule: do not engage in romantic or sexual relations with upperclassmen before November 1st. Trust me, it’s for your own good. We want you to establish your own friend and support group before you get pulled into another person’s. In fact, try not to date anyone before November. As the East Campus Head of House says, do not move at 90 mph when you get here. I think he means not to rush into “adult” things when its “college no parents.” Don’t feel the pressure to get into relationships, have sex, drink, or otherwise lose your purity points. It’ll suck, and it’s not as cool as you think. Pace yourselves. Don’t listen to other freshmen when making your choices at MIT: choices around classes, dorms, majors, etc. Relatedly, listen to, but don’t be like the upperclassmen. Learn to cook now, while there are people around to help you. Try to do this even if you’re on a meal plan. Make a resume early, if you haven’t already. The MIT GECD office will help you craft the best resume possible. Go to Career Fair, even if you feel like there’s no hope for employment. The value of your high school experiences might surprise you. Get a job before you go broke in the spring. There are a range of positions for different levels of effort. You could get a UROP for pay, even as a frosh, or work at desk in your dorm and do your work while you’re at it. You could teach SAT Prep with ATI or tutor GIRs with the OME. You could do Tech Callers and call alumni for donations. There is a range of things freshmen can do on campusâ€"don’t give up hope. It’s ok to stay on campus over Thanksgiving. You can have a feast with your friendsâ€"more people stay over than you think. Invite your friends and neighbors into your life. Before you catch up on a popular TV show, get ice cream off-campus, or go out for a local concert, email out to see if anyone wants to join. Someone probably will. Relatedly, join people on outings when they email out. Take walks. Finish your PE classes. Use the free gyms and swimming pools. The freshman 15+ suck (although you shouldn’t feel guilty about them either). Find all the free stuff. Sign up for the reuse and free-food mailing lists. Go to Choose to Reuse events, and various on-campus fairs (my favorite is the Wellness Fair). Use MIT Medical and Mental Health as needed (almost all the services done in-house at Medical, now including birth control, are completely free). Off-campus, find out which museums offer free admission to students. You can even get a free Costco card for a day from the Institute. Go out to nature. I wish I’d done that more. Remain curious, even when life is hard. Attend lots of on-campus events while on Pass/No Record. Try to sign up for classes that require you to do that (I highly recommend 24.191 in the spring!). Follow the news and engage with friends about current events. Don’t let yourself settle in the bubble. Learn to be alone and enjoy it. Take yourself out for a nice dinner sometimes, or a cool place off-campus. There is almost nothing you can’t do by yourself. And you can’t be with someone until you can be alone. You will not be able to handle unlimited all-nighters. Most of my friends have fucked up their sleep schedules freshman year, and are now exhausted. Your body has a limited supply of energy, so try to use it wisely. Be prepared to study on your own, a lot. MIT classes often suffer from the Problem Set-Lecture Divergence Phenomenon. What that means is, in Lecture, you might learn parts of the cell, and in the following Problem Set, you might be required to cure a genetic disease. I am not exaggerating. For GIRs, ask around before you buy the textbooks. I’ve gotten all of mine from either my floor or the upperclassmen on my floor. The nice thing about GIRs is that we’ve all been through at least one. Don’t be intimidated by late-night discussions. We would love your input. Expect to change. Being prepared in college is way better than being decided. Come to your friends’ student group performances. In your freshman year, trying new things is a lot less awkward. So audition for a play, dance group, a capella group, or something else you’ve never tried. Here, it’s ok. Join pset parties sometimes even if you study best alone. Consider it “networking,” if you want, and that’s an essential skill. Make your room nice, even if you know you’ll move next year. Buy a poster or tapestry. Paint your room, if you can. Build a loft or shelf, if you can. Bring a stuffed toy or photographs from homeâ€"I promise it won’t look childish. Communicate with your roommate. Don’t let the bitterness accumulate. Discuss things like sleep, relationships, noise and cleanliness right away. I know it’s hard, but it’s an important skill, and it’s so worth it in the end. Even if you know you’ll move next year. Do laundry often. Get into a rhythm. I’m speaking as someone who didn’t do that, and someone who regrets it. Buy sweatpants, not nice jeans. Recognize and deal with MIT privilege early. Outside the bubble, things are very different. Remember how much you have. Buy tickets home early if you live far away. Try to keep a plant alive. Bamboo is a good optionâ€"it doesn’t require light. But try something more demanding as wellâ€"taking care of another will get you out of bed for sure. Don’t worry about memorizing department and building numbers, or relevant acronyms in advance. You’ll get caught up pretty quickly once you arrive. When you’ve been here for at least one semester, try to teach someone what you’ve learned. It might not feel that you learned anything from the firehose, but teaching is a way to recognize that’s false. Do not feel bad asking peers  for help. Weve all needed it at some point. And you can give back later. Learn at least some programming. It’s a magical skill. That said, you’ll probably be required to do it in your major anyway (even a social science major like Poli Sci). Be realistic about high school long-distance relationships. Theyre possible if you see a future together. But don’t feel the pressure to stay by default. It’ll take a lot of communication to get through, so make sure you can do it with the person. Hallcest is banned. Do not hook up or date someone from your living area. That’s pretty self-explanatory, I hope. Find the type of “relationship” that works best for you, whether it’s an open, monogamous, or polyamorous arrangement, friends with benefits, casual hook-ups, or nothing at all. MIT in general exerts less pressure to have a specific sort of “relationship,” so don’t feel like there’s one right way to do things. Your relationship with your parents will change. It can be scary or liberating. Either way, try to call them at least once a week if you’re in a good place. If not, call someone from back home. Your roots will continue to influence your life in college. Get involved in your living community: attend events with them, invite them out, help with cleaning or cooking, or just hang around and talk. MIT’s residential system is too special to miss out on “local” experiences. Love, Yul Post Tagged #50 Things #8.01 Physics I: Classical Mechanics #Freshman Orientation #GIRs #MIT Mental Health #MIT OME (Office of Minority Education) #PE #REX #S^3

Religious Terrorism - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 32 Words: 9578 Downloads: 5 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Statistics Essay Did you like this example? RELIGIOUS TERRORISM IS THERE A LINK BETWEEN ISLAM AND TERRORISM Terrorist attacks can shake the foundations of our biggest buildings, but they cannot touch the foundation of America. These acts shatter steel, but they cannot dent the steel of American resolve. George W. Bush Address to the US after hijack attacks on the US World Trade Centre and Pentagon, September 11, 2001 Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Religious Terrorism" essay for you Create order CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION 1. When the terrorists attacked the United States on the morning of September 11, 2001, they set in motion a sequence of events that demonstrated unequivocally the power and influence ofterrorism. Less than two hours of unimaginable violence by nineteen terrorists led to repercussions felt around the world. Beyond the death and destruction that the terrorists caused more than 3,000 people were killed in the suicide attacks on the World Trade Center and the Pentagon. They also inflicted a deep psychological wound upon United States and the rest of the world.[1] 2. Although the United States had experienced major terrorist attacks on its soil in the past, including the 1993 bombing of the World Trade Center and the 1995 bombing of the Alfred P. Murrah Federal Building in Oklahoma City, the September 11 attacks were beyond most peoples worst nightmare. Hijacked planes crashing into U.S. landmarks and live television coverage of the twin towers of the World Trade Center collapsing images that will likely be etched in ones mind forever. 3. The tragedy of September 11, 2001, has revealed the roots of deep planetary contradictions that threaten the world community and indeed life itself on planet Earth. This act of unprecedented terror against thousands of innocent people ought, at last, to start humanity thinking about the stark incompatibility of modern achievements in the areas of scientific knowledge, human rights, and the establishment of human moral standards with ideological, nationalistic, or religiousfanaticism in any form. 4. Lately, most of the terrorismseems to be about Islam, and it all seems to be the same. By all accounts the specter of jihadism looms large. Even if we suspend the belief for a moment and simply cast aside all those terrorist groups that clearly have nothing at all to do with the Islamic religionthe Tamil Tigers in Sri Lanka, the FARC in Colombia and the IRA in Ireland (to name but a few)we are still left with a slew of seemingly similar groups all motivated by and distorting Islam to suit their own ends[2]. The anatomy of propaganda 5. The document found in a suitcase belonging to leading September 11, 2001, terrorist Muhammed Atta further strengthens this belief. The suitcase document is reproduced below and analysed in the ensuing paragraph: Pray during the previous night. Remember God frequently and with complete serenity. Visualize how you will respond if you get into trouble. Read verses of the Quran into your hands and rub them over your luggage, knife, and all your papers. Check your weapons, perform ablution before you leave your apartment, and remember God constantly while riding to the airport. Take courage and remember the rewards which God has promised for the martyrs. [3] 6. The suitcase document is remarkable for four reasons. First, it embodies a classic ascetical strategy for applying formulaic principles to intended actions. Second, it shares much in common with repetitive techniques for self-hypnosis. Third, it bears a striking resemblance to mainstream traditions such as Catholicism in ascetical manuals like The Spiritual Exercises of St. Ignatius of Loyola or The Rule of St. Benedict that says, keep death daily before ones eyes. Whether or not such manuals threaten human freedom depends, of course, on the various contexts in which they have been presented. If in the wrong hands they can function as formulas and meditations both for indoctrination and for fighting holy wars. Fourth, the document from the suitcase directly connectsreligiousformulas and meditations with intentions to perpetrate mass murder. Practical checklists of objectives, terrifying in magnitude, are interwoven withreligiousstatements and then repeated and applied as mantras o f self-indoctrination. Religion The Terrorists Best Weapon 7. Whileterrorism even in the form of suicide attacks is not an Islamic phenomenon by definition, it cannot be ignored that the lions share of terrorist acts and the most devastating of them in recent years have been perpetrated in the name of Islam. This fact has sparked a fundamental debate both in the West and within the Muslim world regarding the link between these acts and the teachings of Islam. Most Western analysts are hesitant to identify such acts with the bona fide teachings of one of the worlds great religions and prefer to view them as a perversion of a religion that is essentially peace-loving and tolerant. Western leaders such as George W. Bush and Tony Blair have reiterated time and again that the war againstterrorismhas nothing to do with Islam. It is a war against evil[4]. 8. Modern International Islamistterrorismis a natural offshoot of twentieth-century Islamic fundamentalism. The Islamic Movement emerged in the Arab world and British-ruled India as a response to the dismal state of Muslim society in those countries: social injustice, rejection of traditional mores, acceptance of foreign domination and culture. It perceives the malaise of modern Muslim societies as having strayed from the straight path (as-sirat al-mustaqim) and the solution to all ills in a return to the original mores of Islam. The problems addressed may be social or political: inequality, corruption, and oppression. But in traditional Islamand certainly in the worldview of the Islamic fundamentalistthere is no separation between the political and thereligious. Islam is, in essence, both religion and regime (din wa-dawla) and no area of human activity is outside its remit. Be the nature of the problem as it may, Islam is the solution.[5] 9. The role of religion of Islam needs closer examination since the majority of terrorists of contemporary times are practising the religion of Islam. One of the enduring questions is what religion of Islam has to do with this. Put simply, does religion of Islam cause terrorism? Could these violent acts be the fault of religionthe result of a dark strain of religious thinking that leads to absolutism and violence? Is religion the problem or the victim? 10. When one looks outside ones faith it is easier to blame religion. In the current climate of Muslim political violence, a significant sector of the American and European public assumes that Islam is part of the problem. The implication of this point of view is the unfortunate notion that the whole of Islam has supported acts of terrorism. 11. Most Muslims refused to believe that fellow members of their faith could have been responsible for anything as atrocious as they September 11 attacksand hence the popular conspiracy theory in the Muslim world that somehow Israeli secret police had plotted the terrible deed. 12. Recently, however, Islam and fundamentalism are tied together so frequently in public conversation that the term has become a way of condemning all of Islam as a deviant branch of religion. But even in this case the use of the term fundamentalism allows for the defenders of other religions to take comfort in the notion that their kind of non-fundamentalist religion is exempt from violence or other extreme forms of public behaviour.[6] CHAPTER II METHODOLOGY Statement of Problem 1. Terrorism has been a persistent feature of warfare and the international security environment for centuries. The magnitude and impact of terrorism has not remained consistent but rather has ebbed and flowed over the course of time. Today terrorism has emerged as one of the most significant international and regional security issues. 2. The terror attacks of Sep 11 have brought about a lasting change in the way contemporary society perceives the religion of Islam. The perception of the people all across the globe has been that Islam is source of violence. Scope 3. Islam is a vast religion and consists of various facets. The dissertation would aim to study the historical perspective of terrorism, conceptualise terrorism and then determine how religion is used as a motivator for terrorism before studying the Quranic interpretations associated with the violence and finally aim to answer the question Is there a link between Terrorism and Islam. 4. The scope does not cover the causes and motivators of terrorism like cultural conflict, globalisation, and economic disparity e.t.c. but is limited to investigate the general belief that Islam is associated with the terrorism. Methods of Data Collection 5. Data for this research has been collected from the following sources: (a) Books, journals, periodicals and studies on the subject. (b) Authenticated information from selected web sites. 6. A bibliography of the books, periodicals and web sites referred to is appended at the end of text. Organisation Of The Dissertation 7. Topic is intended to be dealt in the sequence enumerated below: (a) Introduction (b) Methodology (c) The Genesis of Terrorism A historical perspective. (d) Conceptualising terrorism Definitions. (e) How religion is used as a motivator for terrorism. (f) Interpretations of Quran and Terrorism. (g) Conclusion Is there a link between Islam and terrorism? CHAPTER III THE GENESIS OF TERRORISM A HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE Introduction 1. Terrorism is as old as the human civilization and the use of violence has been integral to the human beings in the entire process of evolution. This chapter aims at tracing the genesis of terrorism to arrive at the roots of contemporary terrorism. 1st -14th Century AD[7] 2. Zealots of Judea. The earliest known organization that exhibited aspects of a modern terrorist organization was the Zealots of Judea. Known to the Romans as sicarii, or dagger-men, they carried on an underground campaign of assassination of Roman occupation forces, as well as any Jews they felt had collaborated with the Romans. Eventually, the Zealot revolt became open, and they were finally besieged and committed mass suicide at Masada fortress. 3. The Assassins. The Assassins were the next group to show recognisable characteristics of terrorism, as we know it today. A breakaway faction of Shia Islam called the Nizari Ismalis adopted the tactic of assassination of enemy leaders because the cults limited manpower prevented open combat. Their leader, Hassam-I Sabbah, based the cult in the mountains of Northern Iran. Their tactic of sending a lone assassin to successfully kill a key enemy leader at the certain sacrifice of his own life (the killers waited next to their victims to be killed or captured) inspired fearful awe in their enemies. 4. The Zealots of Judea and the Assassins were forerunners of modern terrorists in aspects of motivation, organisation, targeting, and goals. Although both were ultimate failures, the fact that they are remembered hundreds of years later, demonstrates the deep psychological impact they caused. 14th -18th Century 5. The period between 14th and 18th century was of relative calm. From the time of the Assassins (late 13th century) to the1700s, terror and barbarism were widely used in warfare and conflict, but key ingredients for terrorism were lacking. Until the rise of the modern nation state after the Treaty of Westphalia[8] in 1648, the sort of central authority and cohesive society that terrorism attempts to influence barely existed. 6. Communications were inadequate and controlled, and the causes that might inspire terrorism (religious schism, insurrection, ethnic strife) typically led to open warfare. By the time kingdoms and principalities became nations, they had sufficient means to enforce their authority and suppress activities such as terrorism. 7. The French Revolution. The French Revolution provided the first uses of the words Terrorist and Terrorism. Use of the word terrorism began in 1795 in reference to the Reign of Terror initiated by the Revolutionary government. The agents of the Committee of Public Safety and the National Convention that enforced the policies of The Terror were referred to as Terrorists. The French Revolution provided an example to future states in oppressing their populations. It also inspired a reaction by royalists and other opponents of the Revolution who employed terrorist tactics such as assassination and intimidation in resistance to the Revolutionary agents. The Parisian mobs played a critical role at key points before, during, and after the Revolution. Such extra-legal activities as killing prominent officials and aristocrats in gruesome spectacles started long before the guillotine was first used. The 19th Century 8. Narodnya Volya. The terrorist group from this period that serves as a model in many ways for what was to come was the Russian Narodnya Volya (Peoples Will). They differed in some ways from modern terrorists, especially in that they would sometimes call off attacks that might endanger individuals other than their intended target. Other than this, they showed many of the traits of terrorism for the first time. These traits included clandestine tactics, cellular organisation, impatience and inability for the task of organising the constituents they claim to represent and a tendency to increase the level of violence as pressures on the group mount. Internationalisation of Terrorism 9. Modern Terrorism. The age of modern terrorism might be said to have begun in 1968 when the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine (PFLP) hijacked an El Al airliner en route from Tel Aviv to Rome. While hijackings of airliners had occurred before, this was the first time that the nationality of the carrier (Israeli) and its symbolic value was a specific operational aim. Also a first was the deliberate use of the passengers as hostages for demands made publicly against the Israeli government. The combination of these unique events, added to the international scope of the operation, gained significant media attention. The founder of PFLP, Dr. George Habash observed that the level of coverage was tremendously greater than battles with Israeli soldiers in their previous area of operations. At least the world is talking about us now.[9] 10. Cooperation. Another aspect of this internationalisation is the cooperation between extremist organizations in conducting terrorist operations. Cooperative training between Palestinian groups and European radicals started as early as 1970, and joint operations between the PFLP and the Japanese Red Army (JRA) began in 1974. Since then international terrorist cooperation in training, operations, and support has continued to grow, and continues to this day. Motives range from the ideological, such as the 1980s alliance of the Western European Marxist-oriented groups, to financial, as when the IRA exported its expertise in bomb making as far afield as Colombia[10]. Current State of Terrorism 11. The roots of todays terrorism began to grow in 1990s. The largest act of international terrorism occurred on September 11, 2001 in set of coordinated attacks on the United States of America where Islamic terrorists hijacked civilian airliners and used them to attack the World Trade Center towers in New York City and the Pentagon in Washington, DC. After September 11, it is very easy to be nostalgic about the 1990s. In fact, the post Cold War decade was a very chaotic period. Americans were absorbed by domestic issues and lulled by the fact that the Cold War was over[11]. Summary 12. There were two great forces at work through the 1990s. First, there were the forces of integration, including global economic growth, cross-border development, the communications revolution and the spreading of democracy. The power of these forces was captured in the popular phrase, The End of History. Thats what seemed to be happening after the fall of the Berlin Wall and all of the other great events that were affecting world history. But there was also a second set of equally powerful forcesthe forces of disintegrationincluding religious and ethnic conflict, an ever-widening North-South gap, religious fundamentalism (Islamic and otherwise) and terrorism. The power of these forces was captured in the phrase, the Clash of Civilizations. While I disagree with the ultimate conclusion of Samuel Huntington, the author of that phrase, that the clash is inevitable, Huntingtons words nonetheless capture the import of the forces that were producing post-Cold War conflicts CHAPTER IV CONCEPTUALISING TERRORISM 1. A few terms that are important to the study of violence in Islam are: terrorism, religious terrorism and Islamic terrorism. A discussion of these terms will permit a comprehensive analysis on the way in which the use of violence sanctioned by the Quran and its interpretations amounts to Islamic terrorism. Terrorism 2. Terrorism is a non-political act of aggression in which the extent of violence used is outside the realm of normative behavior[12]. Terrorists use or threaten to use this violence against combatants and non-combatants to achieve political, social, economical or religious change within a given community. These reforms appeal to the terrorists and do not represent popular opinion of the society from which terrorism arises and terrorists are no respecters of borders[13]. 3. Thus Omar Abdullah, the Chief Minister of Jammu and Kashmir says that there are no well defined or internationally accepted criteria to designate an organization as terrorist. However the UN Security Council has, on occasion, adopted resolutions putting in place specific sanctions and measures against individual countries orcertain terrorist organizations[14]. 4. According to Kofi Annan the Ex Secretary General of the United Nations, the manifestations of terrorism are limitless. The only common denominator among different variants of terrorism is the calculated use of deadly violence against civilians[15]. 5. Terrorists are those who violate the right to life, liberty and security[16] vested in each civilian by the UNs Universal Declaration of Human Rights Resolution: 217 A (III). Thus the Foreign and Commonwealth Office (FCO) of the United Kingdom defines terrorism as a movement in which terrorists directly challenge the authority of democratically elected governments to manage their countrys affairs peacefully, according to the rule of law and internationally accepted fundamentals of human rights[17], to satisfy their own liking. Religious Terrorism 6. Religious terrorism occurs when the use of terrorism is systematized by an ideological and fanatical interpretation of a religious text. Religious terrorist groups functioning in the absence of this pretext, create junk terrorism[18]. 7. According to Charles Kimball, religious terrorism functions on the basis of five essential principles. These are: means justify the end, holy war, blind obedience, absolute truth claims and the ideal times. Kimball explains that truth claims are essential points in a religion at which divergent interpretations arise[19]. Extreme interpretations of truth claims provoke the ideology upon which religious terrorism is based. However the authentic religious truth claims are never as inflexible and exclusive as zealous adherents insist[20]. The staunch truth claims professed by religious terrorists, allow them to use religious structures and doctrinesalmost like weapons[21] for their movement. 8. In the process, religious convictions that become locked into absolute truths can easily lead people to see themselves as Gods agents. People so emboldened are capable of violent and destructive behaviour in the name of religion[22]. This conviction creates fanatical interpretations and ideologies that give rise to religious terrorism. Nancy Connors Biggos[23], states that foreign observers are unfamiliar with the extreme interpretations of religious terrorists. Thus scholars often dismiss the rhetoric of religious terrorism as one that is devoid of any strategic motivation. This creates a dearth of quantifiable data that can be used to assess religious terrorism. However Biggo explains that the lack of understanding or data cannot dismiss the fact that religious terrorism is systematized by extreme interpretations of a religious text. Therefore Wener Ruf, states, where God was pronounced dead all notions of morality have been turned into nihilism[24]. Islamic Terrorism 9. Islamic terrorism is a movement in which the violence caused by terrorism is derived from and used to preserve extreme interpretations of the Quran, in an Islamic community. An in-depth discussion of the how Islamic terrorism is invoked from the Quran, will be discussed in a separate chapter. However, preliminarily speaking Islamic terrorism exists where there is a controversy over sacred space[25]or a Kuranic tenet has been violated. Participants of this movement call for unquestioned devotion and blind obedience[26] to the word of God in order to ameliorate un-Islamic conditions. 9. Islamic terrorism is itself a controversial phrase, although its usage is widespread throughout the English-speaking world. Ordinary Muslims who have nothing to do with terrorism find it reprehensible because it forces upon them a label simply because they, too, are believers of Islam. In fact, the common Muslim believes that you are making him a racial hate target by using the word Islam with terrorism. Bernard Lewisbelieves that the phrase Islamic terrorism is apt, because although Islam, as a religion is not particularly conducive to terrorism or even tolerant of terrorism. In his own words: Islam has had an essentially political character from its very foundation to the present day. An intimate association between religion and politics, between power and cult, marks a principal distinction between Islam and other religions. In traditional Islam and therefore also in resurgent fundamentalist Islam, God is the sole source of sovereignty. God is the head of the state. The state is Gods state. The army is Gods army. The treasury is Gods treasury, and the enemy, of course, is Gods enemy. CHAPTER V RELIGION AS A MOTIVATOR FOR TERRORISM One mans terrorist is another mans freedom fighter.[27] 1. Introduction. The dynamics whereby religion becomes a motivator for terrorism is complex but highly understandable. What terrorists groups using this dynamic have begun to understand is that most ordinary citizens are not highly interested in politics nor dedicated to working for social change. Many ordinary citizens are however interested in religion as it relates to their personal lives and morals and because of this they can be emotionally manipulated when they learn of social injustices particularly if they view them through the lens of religious rhetoric. This is specifically true in todays world of instantaneous news coverage where it is possible to whip up political and religious outrage over events that are seen to be bordering on religious threshold. This is certainly true in the case of al Qaeda and its loosely affiliated groups within what is now commonly referred to as the global salafi jihadist movement[28]. 2. Religious Brainwash. Following the Afghan war in which Islamic peoples from many nations came together to successfully throw out the Russian infidel, Osama bin Laden and similar groups have successfully managed to continue to widen their global appeal by showcasing social injustices against Muslims. This helps to create within a wide group of otherwise less connected Muslim ethnic groups identification with the victims and with each other as a caring and responsive community for their Muslim brothers. Typically, these groups make use of the human rights abuses occurring within the Israeli/Palestinian and Russian/Chechen conflicts and now also include the occupations in Iraq and Afghanistan. 3. The making of a Terrorist. While instantaneous and repetitive satellite coverage of worldwide events is enough to show injustices and to even create identification with victims sharing similar ethnic or religious backgrounds it is not sufficiently enough to fuel terrorism. However, with the addition of religious rhetoric it is transformed into a potent mix. This transformation is achieved via the following means:- (a) Great Moral Wrong. First the event is presented as a great moral wrong, a threat to religious morality or purity and as one that must be corrected. The message, which is crafted for unhappy persons, social outcasts or those who are already suffering from religious guilt, is framed as one of good and evil and the listener is admonished to be on the side of good. (b) Mind of God. The second tactic in which religion is used to motivate terrorism is convincing the person that it is possible to know the mind of God. For this purpose scriptures are used, and misused, to clearly identify the social wrongs as evil, immoral or impure. Once identified as threats to morality, this tactic is used to take it a step further with additional scriptures that are used to justify violence in order to destroy the evil. In this way religion is co-opted as the means to morally justify violence in the pursuit of social change. While the world debated about the first strike in the Iraq War (to be carried out by the U.S., Great Britain and their coalition forces), moralists all over the world debated about the doctrine of just wars, thereby holding forth about the mind of God on these matters. (c) Overcoming Guilt. Thirdly, because nearly all religions hold human life as sacred and forbid murder the scriptures are used to break down these prohibitions against taking innocent human lives. Islamic rhetoric for example refers to the infidels, nonbelievers, defiled, impure, outsiders, and sinners. In this manner the intended terrorist act in ways that take innocent human lives without suffering guilt for having done so. (d) Common Cause Fourthly, by using religion as a motivator the terrorist group creates a sense of cohesion and belonging to a higher cause. They prey upon individuals who are alienated and disenfranchised. When these individuals find a cause to belong to, especially when it espouses religious rhetoric of brotherhood, love and hope for the future life they can become powerfully motivated to act in behalf of the group simply for the sense of identity.[29] (e) Heroic Martyrdom. The One of the ultimate uses of religion to motivate terrorism is to hold forth a view of the afterlife, promising rewards in the hereafter for sacrificing oneself in the here and now. This is a particularly potent tactic used with those who feel guilty about their actions in this life and uncertain of their standing with God, and with those marginal members of society who suddenly find themselves centered in a group with a purpose. The Muslim interpretation of afterlife while dying for jihad states that the Prophet will be waiting to welcome the martyr with thousands of virgins lined up for his pleasure. Referring to afterlife one martyr also states, I will have God welcome me with open arms. I will be a true hero in the sky.[30] 4. Between the two recent wars in Chechnya (1994-96 and 1999) similar means were used to convince vulnerable Chechen individuals to sign on the new Chechen jihad which began making use of suicide terrorism in 2000. During this time period terrorist sponsored schools used were opened in the capital Grozny which recruited young boys and girls who lost their fathers in the Russian/Chechen conflicts promising their widowed mothers a good education for their sons and daughters. Unknown to their families these vulnerable young students were indoctrinated into militant Islamic ideas foreign to Chechen experiences of Sufi Islam and some became convinced that the price of belonging to higher glory is to be willing to sacrifice oneself for the group. In the words of a hostage who conversed with one of the Chechen terrorists :- He explained to me that while his greatest dream was to continue his education and go to university and that while he wished to live, even more important for him was to die a martyr. He had become totally convinced that martyrdom was his highest calling in life.[31] 5. Conclusion. Religion has always been used as a means of constructing social justice, expiating wrongdoing or sins, and of modulating emotional states. These means however can also be used to manipulate vulnerable individuals into taking social actions that they might otherwise never have considered or consented to take part in. For instance a colleague in Chechnya reports that the children who attended terrorist based schools were taught to rock and chant repeating Koranic verses that invoke jihad, ideas that their masters consider important to instil. This practice can easily make use of inducing a suggestive hypnotic state; a light trance in which susceptible children who have already reason to want to avenge a murdered parent might be induced to do so. People interacting with such persons mentioned that these young terrorists were brainwashed, rocking, singing and praying often, and readily embracing death.[32] CHAPTER VI QURANIC INTERPRETATIONS AND TERRORISM 1. Approximately fourteen hundred years ago, Prophet Muhammad, the last in the line of the prophets of Islam, received revelation from God known as the Quran, which is the Final Testament. He came with a message of peace and reconciliation, mercy and compassion. Yet, ever since the beginning of the call of Islam, its image and that of Muslims has been subject to distortion, misconceptions, and misinterpretations. This chapter aims at establishing the link between Quran and the distortions in its interpretation which has manifested itself in the form of jihad or the holy-war. Quran and Sanction of Violence 2. The Quran permits violence as an act of defence waged to protect the Shariat in an Islamic community. The Shariat can be explained as a system of ordinances outlined in the Quran and Hadis[33] through which God lays down for mankind the rules of conduct[34]. The Shariat is the guidance for all walks of life individual and social, material and moral, economic and political, legal and cultural, national and international[35]. 3. Muslims are advised to closely follow the Shariat to acquire the well being that God has envisioned for the Islamic community. Preservation of the Shariat is an obligation of every able-bodied individual[36]. Oppression, despotism, injustice and criminal abuse of power[37] of the Shariat by Muslims or non-Muslims[38], must be punished. Quran and Jihad 4. The Quran identifies three main kinds of Jihad that can be used for the punishment of oppression and injustice. These are: internal[39], external[40] and inter-communal[41]. The Quran permits the use of violence as an optional method for all three forms of Jihad but it limits the use of violence in internal[42] and external Jihad. It expands on its doctrine of Jihad and violence, mainly in the context of inter-communal conflicts. In these cases, Muslims can individually determine the nature and extent of Jihad based on the freedom of interpretations, and the geopolitical conditions in which the conflict arises. However the most essential prerequisite in the Qurans discourse on violence is that, force should be used only when the Shariat has been violated and needs to be persevered as the very work of God Himself'[43]. 5. In Inter communal Jihad, Martial Jihad[44] should be used to protect and to promote the integrity of Islam and to defend the umma [community] against hostile unbelievers whether they are invading armies or un-Islamic internal despots[45]. The use of forces in all other instances is forbidden by God[46]. Once cause for violent Jihad has been established on the basis of geopolitical circumstances and religious understandings of the same, the Quran advises Muslims to:- Fight for the sake of God those that fight against you but do not attack them first. God does not love aggressors. Slay them wherever you find them[47]. It encourages violent Jihadis to muster all the men and cavalry at your disposal [and]strike terror into (the hearts of) the enemies[48]until Gods religion[49] reigns supreme[50]. Jihadis should use violence to ward of external aggression, maintain internal orde and establish absolute justice for all citizens[51]. Jihadis should employ all means and media for the establishment of all that is right and the elimination of all that is wrong'[52]. If they do so then they will dwell amidst garden and fountains and shall receive what their Lord will give themfor they have done good works[53]. 6. Thus as seen above, through its affirmative discourse on the use of violence and its association with the Divine and martyrdom, the Quran encourages the popularity of violent Jihad as a legitimate tool for Muslims to overpower their adversaries. Through this association the Quran also projects the use of violence as a religious duty that demonstrates the utmost submission to God and deserves the highest rewards. This becomes more compelling because the Quran permits violence, in any instance where the Shariat has been violated. 7. A Muslim who foresees this violation as important is allowed by the Quran to adopt violent Jihad. The manner in which this process applies to each Muslim depends on individual interpretations of the Quran which extend themselves to the social realm as well. If adopted on the basis of individual will and sense of religious duty, then violent Jihad can be considered as an act of great patriotism in Islam. Conversely an act of violence that is not directed towards preserving the Shariat and the will of God is categorized as terrorism in Islam. Such acts are a deviation from the path of God and the Quran states that those that deny Gods revelations shall be sternly punished; God is mighty and capable of revenge. Nothing on earth or in heaven is hidden from God[54]. The Quran is extremely categorical in outlining the premise and course for Islamic violence so that it can deter nonreligious violence from occurring. 8. Quran implies that Muslims can apply their Quranic understandings to geopolitical conditions and present religious premise for violent Jihad. Once this is done, the intent and act of violence meets Quranic requirements consequently making violent Jihad a legitimate religious reaction. Most often, acts categorized as terrorism in the non-Muslim world represent religious rather than non-religious violence executed within the Qurans discourse on violence. This is because the non-Muslim worlds categorization of violence is not related to the Quran. In the non-Muslim world, the use of legitimate violence is defined as a state-oriented concept which must find just cause in domestic or international precepts.[55] However, in the Islamic world the Quran itself determines political, economic and social perceptions. 9. Violence in Islamic nations almost always has an essential religious rather than a purely political bias. The Quran states that any Muslim can be a warrior of God rather than the state based on his religious interpretations. The extent to which violence can be used in Islam for this purpose remains unstipulated by the Quran. It simply states that Jihadis should engage all means required to ensure that the enemy is defeated or accepts defeat. Thus even though violent Jihad can create aggression that amounts to terrorism in the non-Muslim world, in Islam this is not perceived as such as long as it occurs within the guidelines on the use of violence, stipulated in the Quran. Contrary perceptions of violent Jihad persist in the non-Muslim world mainly because of the divergent perspectives from which the use of violence is defined. 10. Bin-Laden and some other extremists in the Islamic world contend that the 11 September 2001 attacks were a reaction to the hegemonic status that the United States (US) has established in the Middle-East, especially after the Afghan-Soviet War. This had political and economic implications that often violate the Shariat on governance and trade. These Muslims oppose power-politics played by the US in countries such as Iraq, Iran and Libya. They contend that these politics mainly further US economic interests in the Middle-East. The Quran states that Islamic resources should be used mainly for Islamic benefits and can be exchanged with non-Muslims through negotiations and agreements. However, it strongly condemns unsolicited involvement of non-Muslims in Muslim affairs. Thus, some Muslims also emphasize US oil-trade in the Middle East from this perspective. They also condemn power hungry leaders in the Islamic world who facilitate such economics and politics and prevent the downward filtration effects of these engagements, as recommended by the Quran. Thus, Bin-Laden and these Muslims believe that, despite their intensity, the 11 September 2001 attacks were a legitimate Quranic reaction to preserve the sanctity of Islamic values in the Middle East. 11. Extreme interpretations of the Qurans discourse on violence would legitimize this belief. Contrarily, perceptions of state oriented violence and war in the non-Muslim world would reject it. However, it is important to remember that in Islam, extreme as they maybe, acts of violence are legitimized by the Quran, as long as they are enacted to reserve the Shariat and executed within its discourse on violence. Role of Quranic Interpretations in Justifying and Integrating Terrorism 12. Even though the various terrorists groups intone various ideologies of the Islamic religion, there are no set universal agendas for these groups. In the contemporary world the goal for groups like Hamas, Palestinian Islamic Jihad and the Chechen rebels is a nation of their own with tactics reminiscent of the ethnic violence erupting after abandoned colonialism. On the other end of the spectrum are groups like Jemaah Islamiya (JI) and Al-Qaeda with its various offshoots, who indeed are looking to rearrange the global order, instigate the now-infamous clash of civilizations and create a Muslim caliphate that spans continents, all the while bringing the West to its knees. Their goals are vast and global. Somewhere in the middle of all this are groups at risk, Lashkar-e-Taiba (LET) in Pakistan and the separatist movements in the Philippines and Thailand. These groups are primarily motivated by state-centric goals, but all rest on the cusp of pan-territorial and far more dangerous age ndas. Terrorist groups can largely be conceived as having two working parts: an identity and an ideology. When it comes to Islamicterrorism, that identity is based in religion, but sometimes the ideology is based in nationalism, while at other times in a more transient, pan-territorial agenda. This difference is most stark between more traditional ethno-terrorist movements and the far more globally oriented groups like Al-Qaeda[56]. 13. Since nationalist movements are focused on creating a state or political freedoms for one group, their strategies are focused on the nation-state from which they hope to gain concessions. Their violence is directed at those inside the state. Whether or not Islam provides the identity, their goals are not apocalyptic. In contrast,religiousterrorist groups like Al-Qaeda engage in almost no domestic targeting. Their goals cross continents. They want to destroy corrupt regimes in the Middle East, South and Southeast Asia, purge the Western presence in their lands and change the global power order[57]. 14. After having seen how the terrorists interpret the Quran in justifying their actions, we can surmise that the popularity of this kind of radical reaction in the Muslim world can be explained as areligiouscounter reaction to the rapid progress of modernization, which has often included a move away from traditionalreligiousbeliefs in societies. In some parts of the less-developed world, fundamentalists are counterattacking against the perceived threats to their societies posed by secularism and modernity, and some are blaming their societies failures on the godless West. Political Islam calls for a renewal of Islamic values in the personal and public life of Muslims. Its manifestations include strictreligiousobservances, the rapid growth ofreligiouspublications and readings from the Koran on radio and in television programming, and demands for the implementation of Islamic law. Political Islam often includes growing numbers of Islamic schools, organizations, and activist movements and expressions of resentment against the Western world for exporting a secular Coca-Cola culture to the Islamic world[58]. Throughout the Arab world, Muslim militants and terrorists are often recruited from the legions of unemployed and dispirited young men in both urban and rural settings in seriously underdeveloped countries. In many nations in the Middle East, there is never a shortage of those who are willing to find attractive the idea of launching a holy war against the enemy. CHAPTER VII CONCLUSION With or without religion, you would have good people doing good things and evil people doing evil things. But for good people to do evil things that takes religion. Nobel Prize winner Steven Weinberg 1. At first glance, the link between religious extremism and terrorism seems obvious. Religious extremists are willing to murder because they embrace theologies that sanction violence in the service of God. They have no sympathy for their victims, because they view those victims as enemies of God. And they readily sacrifice their own lives because they expect huge and immediate afterlife rewards in return for martyrdom. 2. But upon closer examination, theological explanations raise more questions than they answer. If theology is so important, why are most terrorist organizations not religious? And if after life rewards is the key, then why has a nonreligious group the LTTE Tamil Tigers been responsible for more suicide attacks than any other organization? Why is suicide bombing associated with all sorts of theologies but just one style of religious organization (best described as sectarian)? And why do most militant sects devote much of their energy to benign and noble activities, such as running schools, health clinics, and social services agencies? 3. Blaming the texts themselves is useless as long as they are held sacred by large groups of people. It is wiser to look for the reasons the texts are used and the reasons that they appeal to wide segments of society as well as to individuals who join in support of terrorism. 4. However as long as real injustices exists that terrorist groups can use to ignite religious passion for their cause we are in danger of battling terrorists rather than addressing root causes. Unless we begin to understand and address the concerns of the new religious terrorist, we will find the consequences of our inaction like the numb shock of 9-11, simply overwhelming. 5. The presence of charismatic ideological leaders able to transform widespread grievances and frustrations into a political agenda for violent struggle is a decisive factor behind the emergence of a terrorist movement 6. Terrorists very frequently claim religious mission as their holy motivation. The most common teaching referred to legitimate terrorism and violence is jihad. In the Quran, the word jihad is mentioned more than 30 times. It is an important teaching of Islam and one of indicators for the quality and degree of faith. In this sense, there are possible relationships between religion, radicalism and terrorism. 7. The radicals argue that Islam and Muslims are under threat. Munkarat (evildoers) are everywhere. It is the time for Muslims to wage a war against enemies of Islam. For them, the West is evil that cause all damages for Islam. Whereas the moderates believe that Islam is not the only religion of God. They view religions other than Islam such as Christian and Jewish are equally true. This does mean however that the moderates believe in syncretism. They believe in Islam but they also believe that there are shared- truth among religions. Due to this, the moderates are mostly tolerance to other religions or faiths. The moderates have a contextual or progressive understanding of Islam and very positive toward modernity. For them violence is strictly permitted in a very measurable manner and they view that Islam is not under threat. 8. There are challenges that Islam has to deal with. But, these challenges are not exclusively caused by the West. To some extents, they might be deep rooted from Muslims themselves. In brief, terrorism has no direct relations with Islam as a religion. Terrorism is driven by Muslims understanding of Islam and their perception of the West and modernity in the global contexts. It is this understanding and perception that determine the extent of terrorism. 9. Terrorism is not exclusively related to Muslims and the Muslim world. While terrorism is more visually pronounced among the Muslims, it is also evident among followers of other faiths, including Christianity, Judaism, Hinduism, and Buddhism. Religious radicalism or fundamentalism is by no means limited to Muslims. Across history, terrorism in form of killings, kidnappings, suicide bombings and other kind of violence are performed by adherents of religions other than Islam such as Hindu, Buddha, Christian, Jewish and so on. 10. It is true that the deadliest terrorist strikes to date, the September 11 attacks (2001), was said to be done by suicide terrorist associated with al-Qaeda, and other striking terrorist strikes were said to be also carried out by Muslims, but this should not hide the fact that this phenomenon is not only related to the Muslim world. 11. Terrorism, therefore, might be a universal phenomenon. It develops not only within specific religious groups but also non-religious groups as well. Terrorism is carried out as a means of political war or bargaining to gain an independent or political autonomy. In line with this, radicalism also develops as a form of solidarity of the oppressed. For example, the invasion of US allies troops to Iraq, trigger not only a global demonstration among Muslim across the globe but also among non-Muslim people who are against USA. Anti-Americanism is on the increases in many part of the world, especially among Muslims. USA and West government policies that hardly condemn Israel are indicators of their back up to the Zionism, a religious movement against by majority Muslims. 12. Economic insecurity might also relate to radicalism and terrorism. A widening economic gap between the developed and developing countries is a fertile ground of terrorism. There is perception prolongation of poverty in developing countries is caused by so-called neo-colonialism. Hegemony of rich countries to dictate and somehow exploit natural resources of the developing countries also creates economic radicalism. 13. In the future, therefore, radicalism and terrorism remain a challenge. If countries unable to create a more secure and safer world, radicalism tends to increase and brought about unpredictable terrorism. In this sense, it is important to rethink the use of military power to fight against terrorism. The use of military forces might be effective to reduce terrorism from its external factors and for temporary time. It might be valuable if fighting against terrorism more emphasize on soft power through cultural ways: developing pluralism and multiculturalism, inculcating the culture of democracy and creating a more just economy. This cultural way could also be strengthened by empowering and facilitating the moderates through education, economic advocate, leadership exchanges and regional or international networking. 14. It also emerges in the present world order that religious diversity seems to discourage terrorism, while ethnic fractionalisation appears to raises domestic terrorism. On the other hand, poverty or lack of education does not seem to be directly linked to its incidence. 15. The clash we are witnessing around the world is not a clash of religion or a clash of civilisations, it is a clash between two oppositions, between two eras. It is a clash between a mentality that belongs to the middle ages and another mentality that belongs to the 21st century. It is a clash between civilisation and backwardness, between the civilised and the primitive, between barbarity and rationality. It is a clash between freedom and oppression, between democracy and dictatorship. 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Shamuel Bar is the senior research fellow at the Institute for Policy and Strategy at the Interdisciplinary Centre Herzliya in Israel and a veteran of the Israeli intelligence community.https://www.hoover.org/publications/policyreview/3438276.html 34. Mark Juergensmeeyer. Does Religion Cause Terrorism? National Policy Forum on terrorism, Security and Americas Purpose-Washington DC, Sep 6-7 2005. https://www.juergensmeyer.com/files/Does%20Relig%20Cause%20Terr.doc 35. Professor Robert Adams. The Changing Face of Terrorism. British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) .https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/recent/sept_11/changing_faces_01.shtml 36. Biggo, Nancy C. The Rationality of the use of Terrorism by Secular and Religious Groups, www.dissertations.com, 37. Speech given by Tony Blair to UN General Assembly on September 21, 1998 Britain and the Fight against International Terrorism, An FCO Network Feature, www.fco.org World Wide Web 38. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Definition_of_terrorism 39. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religious_terrorism 40. https://www.essay-911.com/samples/Religious.htm 41. https://blogs.omeriqbal.com/news 42. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_Fundamentalism 43. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_terrorism 44. https://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2001/09/11/world/main310852.shtml 45. https://www.terrorism-research.com/history/ 46. https://library.thinkquest.org/07aug/01419/EX.html 47. https://www.terrorism-research.com/history/recent.php [1] https://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2001/09/11/world/main310852.shtml [2] Justin A Rosenthel. Jigsaw jihadism. National Interest Jan-Feb 2007. https://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m2751/is_87/ai_n27119326/ [3] Bob Woodward., In Hijackers bag, a call to planning, prayer and death. The Washington Post September 28,2001.https://encyclopedia.com/doc/1P2-460491.html [4] Shmuel Bar.The religious source of Islamic terrorism. Policy Review, June 2004. Shamuel Bar is the senior research fellow at the Institute for Policy and Strategy at the Interdisciplinary Centre Herzliya in Israel and a veteran of the Israeli intelligence community. https://www.hoover.org/publications/policyreview/3438276.html [5] Ibid [6] Mark Juergensmeeyer. Does Religion Cause Terrorism? National Policy Forum on terrorism, Security and Americas Purpose-Washington DC, September 6-7 2005. Mark Juergensmeeyer is a professor of sociology and religious studies and director of the Orfalea Center of Global and International Studies at the University of California, Santa Barbara. He is author or editor of twenty books, including Terror in the Mind of God: The Global Rise of Religious Violence. https://www.juergensmeyer.com/files/Does%20Relig%20Cause%20Terr.doc [7] Terrorism Research. History of Terroris. Terrorism-Researchhttps://www.terrorism-research.com/history/ (20 Nov 2009) [8] The Treaty of Westphalia ended the 30 year war. [9] John Shattuck.Religion, Rights, and Terrorism. Harvard Human Rights Journal. https://www.law.harvard.edu/students/orgs/hrj/iss16/shattuck.shtml. History of terrorism. https://library.thinkquest.org/07aug/01419/EX.html [10] Terrorism in the 20th and 21st Century.https://www.terrorism-research.com/history/recent.php [11] Professor Robert Adams. The Changing Face of Terrorism. British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC).https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/recent/sept_11/changing_faces_01.shtml. (Dec 5 2009) [12] Biggo, Nancy C. The Rationality of the use of Terrorism by Secular and Religious Groups, www.dissertations.com, p. 18. [13] Speech given by Tony Blair to UN General Assembly on September 21, 1998 Britain and the Fight against International Terrorism, An FCO Network Feature, www.fco.org, p. 2. [14] Criteria to Declare a country and organization as terrorist ,Unstarred Question, No 1982, Government of India, Ministry of External Affairs. [15] Security Council Foreign Ministers Discuss Counter-terrorism, US Department of State, International Information Programs, https://usinfo.state.gov/topical/pol/terror/01111206.htm. [16] Universal Declaration of Human Rights, www.un.org. p. 1. [17] Britain and the Fight against International Terrorism, p.1 [18] Schwartz Stephen, The Two Faces of Islam The House of Saud from Tradition to Terror, Doubleday Random House, New York 2002, p. 250. [19] Kimball Charles, When Religion Becomes Evil, Harper San Francisco, New York 2003, p. 46 [20] Kimball Charles, When Religion Becomes Evil, p. 41. [21] Kimball Charles, When Religion Becomes Evil, p. 32. [22] Kimball Charles, When Religion Becomes Evil, p. 70. [23] The author of the article The Rationality of the use of Terrorism by Secular and Religious Groups [24] Ruf Werner, Islam and the West- Judgments, Prejudices, Political Perspectives, Verlag GmbHCo.Kg, Munster:2002, p. 21. [25] Kimball Charles, When Religion Becomes Evil, p. 127. [26] Kimball Charles, When Religion Becomes Evil, p. 72. [27] An early use of this phrase was inThe EconomistVol. 273:2 in 1848, and more recently Indian Council of World AffairsIndia Quarterly, Indian Council of World Affairs [etc.], 1945.p. 122. [28] For an excellent discussion and definition of the global Salafi jihad see Marc Sageman, Understanding Terror Networks University of Pennsylvania Press, 2004 [29] See Post, Jerrold, Sprinzak, Ehud and Denny, Laurita (2003) The terrorists in Their Own Words: Interviews with 35 Incarcerated Middle Eastern Terrorists. Terrorism and Political Violence, volume 15, number 1, pp. 171-184. [30] Speckhard, Anne Unpublished Belgian interviews Spring and Fall 2005. [31] For a further discussion of how Chechen terrorists take on the religious terrorist ideology see Anne Speckhard Khapta Ahkmedova (2006) The Making of a Martyr: Chechen Suicide Terrorism, Journal of Studies in Conflict and Terrorism Volume 29, Issue 5. [32] Ibid, also Speckhard, Anne unpublished Beslan interviews August 2005. [33] The Hadis (or Hadith) is the collection of biographic reports about the sayings, customs and doings of Mohammed and his companions; they also reflect on what Mohammed enjoined and tolerated in his presence or forbade.(https://answering-islam.org/Nehls/Ask/sunnah.html) [34] Translated by N.J. Dawood, The Koran, Penguin Group, England 1999, p. 357 (47:3). [35] Ahmad Khurshid, Islam ~ its meaning and message, The Islamic Foundation, Leicester: 1975, p. 37. [36] Lewis Bernard, The Crisis of Islam- Holy War and Unholy Terror, p. 31. [37] Sadar Ziauddin, Islam, Postmodernism and other Futures, Pluto Press, Virginia 2003, p. 64. [38] The refers to people who do not follow Islam and to those societies, states or communities in which the dominant population is not Muslim. [39] Internal Jihad is that which is declared by a Muslim on himself to improve his adherence to the Quranic revelations. [40] External Jihad declared by an individual against the Islamic community to attain Quranic justice. [41] Inter-communal Jihad that declared between communities to attain Quranic objectives. [42] Violence is more rarely advocated in the case of internal as compared to external Jihad. [43] Taher Mohamed, Encyclopedic Survey of Islamic Culture- Vol. 11, Anmol Publications Pvt. Ltd, New Delhi 1997, p. 25. [44] Refers to a method of Jihad which can be used for internal, external or inter-communal purposes [45] Husain Mir Zohar, Global Islamic Politics, Harper Collins College Publishers, New York 1995, p. 37-38. [46] The Qurran, p. 107 (6:151). [47] The Quran, p. 29, (2.912 and 2.913). [48] Mohammad Nazar, Commandments by God in the Quran, The Message Publications, New York 1991, p. 733 (8:25). [49] According to the Quran, Islam is Gods true and only religion. [50] The Quran, p. 29, (2.912 and 2.913). [51] Choudhry Goulam W, Pakistan Transition from Civilian to Military Rule, Scorpion Publishing, Essex 1998, p. 92. [52] Choudhry Goulam W, Pakistan Transition from Civilian to Military Rule, p. 93. [53] The Quran, p. 367 (51:17). [54] The Quran, p.43, (3:5). [55] Walzer, Micheal. Just and Unjust Wars. Basic Books Perseus Books Group, New York: 2000. [56] Justice A Rosenthal. Jigsaw jihadism. National interest, Jan 2007. https://www.britannica.com/bps/additionalcontent/18/23771912/ [57] ibid. [58] Robert. M. Jenkins, The Islamic connection, Religious Fundamentalism and Terrorism.

The Connection Between Crime And Drugs - 1323 Words

There is an undoubtable connection between crime and drugs, at least that is what we are made to believe. Majority of people would jump to say, drugs obviously are the source of crime. Yet, how do we know? In the early decades of America, drugs were very much legal to all people. Hundred years ago, there was a small handful amount of laws prohibiting the use of drugs. Companies were including it into their products [as an ingredient]. Physicians were prescribing it to their patients as treatment. It could even be brought over the counter in specific markets. Employers even believed that drugs were an enhancer, so they gave it to their workers to better their productivity. So, how did we come from being dependents on drugs to drug prohibition? We have completely changed our beliefs. Illegal drugs have become a major criminal offence in America, yet decades ago it was used as a form of medicine or recreation by everyone† (Berger, 171). Why have things changed? What became differe nt? 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Teachers’ Knowledge of Legal Issues Surrounding Students’ Rights Free Essays

string(111) " not automatically coextensive with the rights of adults in other settings† \(Bethel School District No\." Even though lawsuits against teachers have multiplied over the last decade, teacher preparation institutions and educational leaders across our nation have yet to recognize teachers’ knowledge of school law as an area that should be at the top of the priority list for improvement in teacher training. Although this new, legally influenced educational environment has not developed overnight, it has quickly become an area that demands attention among teachers, administrators, and other constituencies. The overabundance of litigation in the United States of America illustrates the legal complexity of the nation and the litigious nature of its citizenry. We will write a custom essay sample on Teachers’ Knowledge of Legal Issues Surrounding Students’ Rights or any similar topic only for you Order Now Accordingly, individuals entering the teaching profession should be equipped with the legal knowledge necessary to protect themselves and the students with whom they have contact. The purpose of this study is to explore some of the underlying legislation and literature that depicts the legal issues surrounding students’ rights and how these issues are interrelated to teachers’ knowledge of school law. Through the information provided in this paper, it is evident that insight into knowledge of school law among teachers is an issue that is increasingly important to educators and educational leaders in United States. Introduction In 1989, the American Tort Reform Association (ATRA) surveyed principals and school attorneys to determine the impact of legal issues on the educational setting. The study revealed that 58% of the participants noted changes in school-related programs due to liability concerns and nine percent of respondents reported having been involved in lawsuits or settlements (Sherman, 2000). Only a decade later, the ATRA conducted a similar investigation in which 64% of the respondents reported a difference in school-related programs as a result of liability concerns and 31% of participants reported being involved in lawsuits or settlements (Sherman, 2000). In 1999 ATRA reported that nearly one-third of all high school principals have been involved in a lawsuit in the last two years, compared to only nine percent, 10 years ago. (Sherman, 2000). Further, Affinity Insurance Services (2003) reported that, â€Å"the number of lawsuits filed against teachers and other education professionals has increased at an alarming rate -over 270% in the last ten years† (p. 2). These findings clearly illustrate the severity of the issue under investigation and highlight the need for corrective and preventative measures aimed at reducing the regularity of litigation within the educational environment. Although this research speaks for itself, public sentiment toward filing suits against educators is at the crux of the issue. Stern (2001) reported that for some students and parents, a good lawyer is as important as good grades. Furthermore, Sorokin (2002) stated that society has become increasingly litigious and the law is used only for personal benefit, especially in the educational setting. Recently, the National Center for Policy Analysis (2003) reported that the rising tide of lawsuits against educators over the last decade has made school discipline difficult, reduced opportunities for students, and consumed many educational resources. Fischer, Schimmel, and Kelly (2003) state that â€Å"today’s schools function in a complex legal environment, and a wide range of legal issues influence the lives of teachers, students, parents, and administrators† (p. vii). Currently, the No Child Left Behind legislation asserts that teachers are protected from most lawsuits if they act within their responsibilities. However, the problem arises in the issue of whether teachers have adequate legal knowledge upon which to define their responsibilities, and subsequently base their decisions for action or behavior. Additionally, educators operate in environments that are open-systems that are subject to the influence of countless extraneous variables. This makes educational policy and daily procedures more difficult to define; thus, complicating teachers’ responsibilities (McCarthy et al. , 2004). For these reasons, it would seem that knowledge of legal responsibilities and legal rights would be at the forefront of professional preparation for preservice educators or professional development for inservice educators. Legal issues surrounding students’ rights Knowledge of students’ rights is at the forefront of lawfulness as an educator. Although rights of students are very important to educators, maintaining orderliness and authority by teachers and other school officials is also a top priority for educational systems. Thus, educators are granted broad powers to establish rules and regulations governing student conduct in the educational setting (Essex, 1999). This power of authority is not absolute; rather it must be exercised with reasonableness and the focus must stay on maintaining order and peace. However, because students continue to test the limits of their personal freedoms in public schools, frequent collisions arise as educators strive to maintain educational environments that are highly conducive to learning (McCarthy et al. , 2004). In dealing with these issues, the courts have generally considered the reasonableness clause as a basis for case decisions. In 1969, the United States Supreme Court handed down a historic decision that challenged the reasonableness consideration, in Tinker v. Des Moines (1969), the court ruled that neither teachers nor students lose their constitutional rights to freedom of expression when they enter the public schools. The First Amendment guarantees that the federal government cannot abridge personal freedoms. Thus, the Supreme Court ruled that through the Fourteenth Amendment state governments, including Boards of Education, cannot abridge citizens of such freedoms. Consequently, educators have been faced with the increased challenge of maintaining effective educational environments while ensuring personal freedoms (Essex, 1999). Freedom of speech and expression is granted by the First Amendment to the U. S. Constitution that states, in part, that â€Å"Congress shall make no law †¦ abridging the freedom of speech, or of press or of the rights of peoples to peacefully assemble. † The court has stated that First Amendment rights must receive protection in the educational setting â€Å"if we are not to strangle the free mind at its source and teach youth to discount important principals of our government as mere platitudes† (West Virginia State Board of Education v. Barnette, 1943). A multitude of additional court cases has set precedence in the area of students’ rights. However, the court has recognized that â€Å"the constitutional rights of students in public school are not automatically coextensive with the rights of adults in other settings† (Bethel School District No. You read "Teachers’ Knowledge of Legal Issues Surrounding Students’ Rights" in category "Pap ers" 403 v. Fraser, 1986). Thus, freedom of speech and expression is open to limitation by policies that are reasonably designed based on the conditions of the educational setting (Fischer, Schimmel, and Kelly, 2003). Taking this legislation into consideration, educators should be knowledgeable of situations in which constitutional freedoms do not prevail. â€Å"Defamatory, obscene, vulgar, and inflammatory expression are not protected in the public school context† (McCarthy et al. 2004, p. 115). As a result of Hazelwood School District v. Kuhlmeier (1988), school authorities can limit students’ freedom of expression in school publications and other school-related activities as long as the limits are based on legitimate educational concerns. In commenting on the utilization of this judicial decision, Rosen (2002) states that â€Å"administrators with a militaristic bent have no better weapon in their arsenal†¦ † In general, however, courts have endorsed the notion that educators should limit students’ freedoms of expression and press only when their actions cause disruption to the educational environment (Essex, 1999). Student-initiated clubs have become very common in the educational setting. Lee (2002) asserts that joining a group that is unified in vision and in action can soothe the difficulties that many alienated students may experience. But, because the nature of some clubs has caused controversy, litigation has ensued. Although freedom of association is not specifically protected under the First Amendment, the Supreme Court has ruled that freedom of association is â€Å"implicit in the freedoms of speech, assembly, and petition† (Healy v. James, 1972). The issue, however, arises in the nature of the association that is taken by the students. Public school students have sought legal espousal for secret societies or closed-membership clubs through the assertion that these associations are supported by First Amendment freedoms. However, the courts have upheld rulings by school officials prohibiting student membership in secret societies (Burkitt v. School District No. 1 Multnomah County, 1952). Conversely, student-initiated organizations with open membership are receptive to support under the First Amendment. Accordingly, courts have held that if a public high school allows student associations to meet during noninstructional time, the access policy for such meetings by other groups must be neutral in relation to association content (Dixon v. Beresh, 1973). Due to the legislation resulting from such issues, Congress enacted the Equal Access Act (EAA) in 1984, that confirmed that if a federally assisted secondary school creates an open forum for noncurricular student groups to meet during noninstractional time, it must not deny access to specific groups based on religious, political, or other content of the groups’ meeting (Fischer, Schimmel, and Kelly, 2003). School officials may only limit meetings that threaten to disrupt the educational environment. As mentioned earlier in this literature review, the establishment of an open forum has been challenged by the Establishment clause when association is of a religious nature (Board of Education of the Westside Community Schools v. Mergens, 1990). Reflection on this legislation raises the issue of whether or not the creation of an open forum is in the best interest of the school. Fortunately, under the EAA, school districts do retain the option of restricting access to only curriculum related association, rather than creating a limited open forum for student-initiated association. Regardless of the choice, teachers must be aware of the school district’s decision and the underlying obligations of this decision in order to avoid instances of controversy when dealing with student-initiated clubs (Imber Van Geel, 2000). Freedom of appearance on behalf of students has led to regular litigation in the past. Appearance is of great importance to most students. However, when fads and fashion lead to disruptions in the learning environment, controversy usually follows. Although freedom of appearance has been considered an extension of symbolic expression, which is protected under the First Amendment, the courts have reached contradictory conclusions over this issue (Essex, 1999). In 1982, the court determined that restrictions on student appearance constitute â€Å"a reasonable means of furthering the school board’s undeniable interest in teaching hygiene, instilling discipline, asserting authority, and compelling uniformity† (Domico v. Rapides Parish School Board, 1982). Although students have asserted that attire is a means of expression protected under the First Amendment, courts have held that attire can be regulated if it is deemed â€Å"immodest, disruptive, or unsanitary† (Richards v. Thurston, 1970). More stringent restrictions on attire, in the form of uniform policies, have been established in some school systems in order to eliminate gang-related attire, reduce violence, and improve school climate by removing the emphasis placed on attire, thereby enhancing the emphasis on academics (Del Stover, 1996). However, courts have reached contradictory conclusions concerning the constitutionality of mandated school uniform policies. Thus, in order to avoid potential litigation, educators must ensure that a legitimate educational justification is underlying any regulation related to students’ appearance and teachers must enforce uniform policies based solely upon these established justifications in order to avoid litigation (McCarthy et al. , 2004). Extracurricular activities are integral components of the majority of public school across the nation. In 1975, Goss v. Lopez established that once a state provides public education, students cannot be denied access to this education without due process of law. Although courts have historically held that extracurricular activities are fundamental in the educational system, the current view stipulates that conditions may be attached to participation in such activities. However, litigation has been contradictory because, â€Å"courts have not agreed regarding procedural protections that must be provided when students face suspension or expulsion from extracurricular activities† (McCarthy et al. 2004, p. 135). Due to these insubstantial rulings, school authorities may not be required to provide formal due process procedures prior to the suspension of a student from extracurricular activities. Nevertheless, if the school district has a policy for suspending students from extracurricular activities, school authorities must abide by this policy, in such instances, an informal hearing and documentation of the underlying rationale for the action is advisable. Suspension based on academic standing, age, conduct, extracurricular participation fees, individual skill, school attendance, residence, and a number of other conditions have been left to the discretion of school district authorities (Imber Van Geel, 2000). Policies concerning these considerations should be clearly written, they should be communicated to students, teachers, and parents, they should be based on sound educational rationale, and they should be enforced in an indiscriminating manner. Educators should ensure that suspension or denial of participation in extracurricular activities is based on established policy in order to avoid litigation in this area. Conclusion In this litigious society, to protect themselves and the students they teach, teachers should have ample knowledge of school law. Determining the level of knowledge of school law and the importance that teachers place on this knowledge is important so that college officials, school administrators, and teachers can make decisions focused on improving knowledge in deficient areas, such as legal issues pertaining to students’ rights. Educating particular groups to increase law knowledge will remain a great challenge for universities officials, school administrators, and teachers because no one person or group of people is like that of another and because no one person or group shares the same educational or practical experiences. Knowledge of the law pertaining to students’ rights is of extreme importance to educators because â€Å"by their very nature schools are places where students often wish to express their ideas through speech and other means† (Imber Van Geel, 2000, p. 37). Thus, teachers should be prepared to lawfully allow students to exercise their constitutional rights while maintaining the structure and integrity of the educational system. In doing so, students will experience an enriched educational environment based upon diversity of ideals, respect for self and others, and, most importantly, the liberties granted by the U. S. Constitution that have defined our nation and its citizenr y. How to cite Teachers’ Knowledge of Legal Issues Surrounding Students’ Rights, Papers